NOTE: The information here is a supplement to the information in Chapter Four of American English. Please refer to that chapter for further information on specific differences between the Northern, Southern and Midland dialect areas.
The Americas prior to the arrival of Europeans -- Approximately two million Native Americans in North America around 1492 (the permanent arrival of Europeans). There is a rich linguistic mixture with perhaps as many as 500 different languages (not just dialects) spoken. This is radically diminished in a rather short period of time. AE retains many Native American words for places, geographical features, animals, etc.
Origins of English in America can be found in the language of Britain during the 16th and 17th centuries.
Old English (c. 499-1066) >> Beowulf
Middle English (1066-1500) >> Chaucer
Early Modern English (1500-1776) >> Shakespeare
Modern English or Present Day English (1776-Present)
Other linguistic elements will strongly influence this (Native Americans, other European languages--such as German, Spanish, and French--and African languages) but the British influence is dominant, especially in the earliest years of settlement.
A unified "standard" for British English (influenced primarily by the area between London, Oxford and Cambridge in England) was not firmly established until the mid-1700s, so there was great variety in the English that was spoken by the early English settlers to America.
Even today, some of the most noticeable differences in American English (AE) can be traced back to the British English dialects of the 17th-18th centuries.
HOWEVER, the speech of the early settlers more closely
resembles AE today than present day British English.
Reasons: 1) Changes in BE that did not occur in America;
2) until very recently, America was a fairly remote, isolated country.
Its vast size encouraged dialects to develop.
Both the English languages in America and in Britain continue to change but in different directions. Sometimes, American English has retained older varieties of English speech that have disappeared in England.
Despite the differences in AE dialects, AE remains relatively uniform compared to the radical differences that exist in other countries, including England where many distinct dialects still exist within a relatively small geographical area. What are the reasons for this?
Most early observers of speech in America did not comment on its differences but on its relative uniformity. This does not mean that differences did not exist; it simply means that such differences were either minor or relatively unimportant.
The American Revolution--
It is very important to think of the American Revolution primarily as a linguistic event, rather than simply as a socio-political event.
Colonists (even after Independence has been won) are very wary/uncertain of the value of seeing themselves as "Americans" as something different from Britain or Europe. No great initial enthusiasm for such documents as The Declaration of Independence or The Constitution. Rather than reflecting an emerging national consciousness, these written documents (along with Thomas Paine's Common Sense) create a national identity. This is reinforced by other political leaders, such as Noah Webster whose Dictionary of the English Language in American and Spelling Book helped to forge a national language (and identity) from the many different ethinc groups that came to America.
An awareness of language differences really begins to emerge after the Revolution, in response to other national/cultural differences that people begin to feel or believe in. The awareness of language differences is generated by larger social and political differences.
Three stages of Immigration:
I. Early Colonial Era, 1607-1730
During this era, we see the
creation of two major dialect areas (click
to see map)
1. Southern-- Primarily composed of British immigrants from the Southern/Southeastern counties of England (in and around London), they settle along the Southern coastline, stretching from Jamestown, Virginia to Charleston, South Carolina.
Tidewater (Coastal) Virginia (the area around Richmond and Chesapeake) is a major center for the development of Southern speech. Many social classes but governed by an elite aristocratic class that was largely homogeneous. They also retained close ties to England that is reflected in their speech. Characterized by loss of -r in many words (often referred to as loss of post-vocalic -r) which had become part of Standard British English by the mid-18th century.
Other contributing factors-- Africans are present in the South as permanent residents as early as 1609 (in Jamestown). Their languages will have a profound influence on the development Southern speech. All native speakers from the South carry the traces of their influence in how they speak.
In areas like Charleston, much of Florida and Louisiana (New Orleans), there is a strong influence from French and Spanish immigrants that will create other varieties of Southern speech.
Despite many differences in the speech of North and South
there are also similarities that persist to this day, for example the loss
of post-vocalic "r" in many words can be heard in both the speech of Boston
and the speech of Charleston, SC.
2. Northern-- Primarily composed of British immigrants from the Eastern counties of England, they settle in and around Boston and comprise what we think of today as New England.
While it is rapidly disappearing, r-less pronunciations are also characteristic of New England speech.
The Northern region is also characterized by a larger variety of religious and ethnic groups from different regions of England and from other countries, all residing within a fairly small geographic region. To this day, there are distinct differences between Boston, Connecticut, and Rhode Island.
Another contributing factor is the emergence of large urban areas, especially New York, that tend to be more cosmopolitan (contain a greater variety of non-English speaking immigrants) and are often considered as separate dialect areas.
II. Westward Expansion into the Appalachians and toward the Mississippi River, 1730-1860--
A major wave of new immigrants begins to arrive around 1730, comprised primarily of Scotch-Irish and Germans. Most land in Philadelphia and move westward across Pennsylvania, looking for available land. Many move westward and settle into areas that today we know as Pittsburgh, Cincinnati and St. Louis. Others turn toward the Southern interior, moving through the Shenandoah Valley and into the trans-Appalachian region, settling as far South as the Piedmont and Mountain regions of North Georgia and Alabama.
These non-English speaking Immigrants comprise the third major dialect area of the colonial era, what linguists call the Midland speech area. It is further divided into North Midland and South Midland. Pittsburgh is an important focal area for North Midland speech;Atlanta (until recently) and Memphis are important focal areas for South Midland speech.
III. Period of New Immigration (1860 to present)--
Prior to 1890, 75-90% of immigrants are from the British Isles or Northern Europe.
New arrivals are more diverse, coming from Southern and Eastern European countries (Italy, Poland), from Asia and from Central/South America. These will have a profound influence on the development of social/ethnic dialects in urban areas, primarily in the North.
See Wolfram and Shuy (chart on page 537) for specific
differences between Southern, Northern, and Midland dialects.