3.1 Lexical Differences

>One of the most easily observable levels of dialect variation occurs in the LEXICON or vocabulary of the language.
> Because the relationship between a real-world object and the word used to describe it is usually arbitrary, different words are used to describe different objects or ideas in different dialects.

Types of Lexical Change

Semantic Broadening (Expansion)
Semantic Narrowing (Reduction)
Semantic Elevation
Semantic Reduction

Semantic Broadening (Expansion)
Meaning shift in which words refer to a more general class of items than previously:
Holiday
Dog
Bird
Nuke

Semantic Broadening (Expansion)
Brand Names
Coke
Kleenex
Xerox

Semantic Broadening (Expansion)
Metaphorical Expansion
Broadcast (to scatter seeds)
Nautical Terms (applied to space flight) such as ship, dock, hatch, crew
Benedict Arnold
Scrooge

Semantic Narrowing (Reduction)
Meaning shift in which words refer to a more specific class of items or objects.
Girl (both sexes)
Deer (any small animal)
Hound (all breeds of dog)
Meat (food in general)
Worm (any crawling creature)
Skyline (horizon)

Semantic Elevation
Meaning shift in which words take on more positive connotations or denotations:
Knight (youth)
Chivalrous (war-like)
Squire (Knight’s attendant)
Earl (OE > eorl, “man”)
Modern examples include such words as “bad” and “cool”

Semantic Degradation
Meaning shift in which words take on more negative connotations or denotations.
Mistress (Mister)
Wench (Young Maiden)
Stench (OE for Smell or Fragrance)
Lust (Pleasure)
Vulgar (common people)
Silly (Happy, Blessed, or Innocent)

How New Words Are Created (Table 3.1)
Compounding
Acronyms
Blending
Clipping
Conversion
Folk Etymology
Back Formation

Function Words
Differences can also occur in FUNCTION WORDS such as prepositions and articles.
While these do not always change the meaning of a phrase, the are often characteristic of a regional or social dialect.

Function Words: Examples
sick to / at / in / on my stomach
of / in the morning
have a / the toothache
half past / after six
quarter of / till / before four
The man passed away / on / 0
We’re waiting on / for Mary

3.2   Slang
Very difficult to define
In popular culture, the label is frequently used to refer to everything from the general use of a vernacular dialect, to specialized jargon, to individual words.

Slang: Linguistic Definition
Words with special connotations of informality and group solidarity that replace mainstream or “normal” SAE words.
From a socio-linguistic perspective, what distinguishes words classified as “slang” is their socio-psychological significance.

Slang: Six Characteristics
Arranged along a continuum
Have connotations of informality
Situational, dependent on setting or situation
Indicate a special familiarity with a group outside of the mainstream of adult population. They might be associated with specific age-groups, ethnic cultures, or social classes.
Function as synonyms that displace neutral or conventional words in SAE.
Transient--Slang terms have a very brief existence.