The existence of dialects in a heterogeneous society is a natural manifestation of group differences. Dialects are one of the basic elements of our social organization. Therefore, while languages world-wide are diminishing, there is much evidence to suggest that dialects of particular languages (like English) are increasing.
The existence of dialects results from a combination of historical, social and linguistic causes.
I. Historical Causes--
A. Historical conditions that surround language change contribute to the emergence of dialects.
B. In the ideal situation for dialect development, both physical and social separation takes place between groups of speakers.
Listed below are some of the major HISTORICAL elements that create differences in a language:
1. Settlement-- One of the most important explanations for the emergence of dialects in America starts with the settlement patterns of the original groups of speakers.
A. AE dialects should be traced to their original points of origin-- Thus the history of American English does not begin with the initial landing of English speakers in the New World; instead, some of the dominant characteristics still found in varieties of American English can be traced to dialect differences that existed in the British Isles, as well as in other English-speaking and even non-English speaking territories (such as West Africa and the Caribbean).
B. The major dialects of American English to this day reflect the original sites of settlement, with early cultural centers such as Boston, Tidewater (coastal) Virginia, and Charleston, SC still central focal areas in the definition of regional varieties of American English.
C. Settlement patterns usually take place in several distinct phases (see maps in Wolfram and on Website):
1) A group of people move into a area where there are attractive environmental qualities or available land. These first settlers typically establish a cultural and linguistic area that persists through time, even though certain aspects of their speech will inevitably change.
2) Adjacent land is occupied and settled and the identity of the new culture emerges, as a cohesive society develops in the region.
3) The emerging population defines its role or relationship with respect to other surrounding cultures / populations. These cultural encounters will affect the expansion and development of the dialect. Sometimes the changes are minor; other times, they are dramatic.
Example: Loss of post-vocalic "-r" in many dialects along the eastern seaboard.
2. Migration Routes-- Once settlement locations are established, dialect boundaries will often follow the major migratory routes from these initial points.
Pennsylvania is divided between Northern and Midland dialect
groups along a distinct Dialect Boundary:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Migration patterns vary over time and are unique to different
cultural groups. They can involve geographical movement as well as movements
from rural to urban settings. Consider the following historical migrations
that have characterized America:
| Europeans (up to 20th century) =>> | East to West / Urban to Rural |
| African Americans (early 20th century) =>> | South to North / Rural to Urban |
| Contemporary (variety of cultural groups) =>> | North to South (Sun Belt) |
| Hispanic (up to contemporary) =>> | South America to American West |
3. Physical or Geographical Factors--
A. Geographical features often play a role in the development of dialects because rivers, lakes, mountains, valleys, and other features of the terrain determine the migratory routes that people take and where they settle.
Examples:
Barrier Islands = Tangier Island (off the coast of Virginia
and coastal islands along South Carolina and Georgia (St. Simon's Island).
Mountains = Appalachian Region
Rivers = Mississippi River (in certain locations)
B. When we cite the significance of physical boundaries, we are really talking about lines of communication, and the fact that discontinuities in communication have taken place between communities due to physical conditions. The most effective kind of communication is face-to-face, and when a group of speakers does not interact regularly with other speakers, the likelihood of dialect divergence is heightened.
C. The influence of geography has been diminished with the advent of technology (phones, roads, automobiles). However, we now see these same factors emerging in differences between urban and rural/suburban speakers. Think about how the suburbs are designed as a sort of self-imposed isolation.
4. Language Contact-- Along the paths of resettlement
and migration, contact with other language groups often takes place.
This contact can influence both general language and specific dialect formation
as the languages borrow from each other. For example, the following
foreign words are now part of the English langauge or particular AE dialects:
| Native American | Moccasin | Raccoon | Chipmunk | ||
| African | Okra | Pinto | Gumbo | Goober | Pinder |
| German | Kindergarten | Hamburger | Sausague | ||
| Spanish | Canyon | Patio | Rodeo | Arroyo |
As the examples above illustrate, language contact predominately influences the lexicon (words) of a language. However, sometimes it influences phonology and grammar as well (see Wolfram for examples). Note that some of the words above are part of SAE while others are representative of a particular AE dialect (such as arroyo and Pinder)
II. Social Causes--
Large populations with similar settlement patterns and migratory backgrounds still manage to establish dialects among different groups within the population because of sociological and psychological factors. Some of the factors include the following:
1. Economic Ecology--
How people earn their living goes hand in hand with how populations are distributed geographically and culturally. Your work shapes your speech.
A. Different economic settings bring about the development of specialized vocabulary items associated with different occupations.
B. They also may affect the rate and direction of language change. For example, in urban areas language changes more rapidly and there are usually a greater variety of dialects. In rural areas, language changes at a much slower pace.
2. Social Stratification--
Social class is a fact of life in America, and it influences virtually every regional variety of English. The upper, middle and lower classes distinguish themselves from each other by a whole range of social behaviors (such as dress, occupation, education, and social activities) including language.
Language change originates from a variety of social levels, and not just from one social class.
3. Communication Networks--
A. The people you talk to on a regular basis can be an important factor in determining dialect differences. Who are the kinds of people that a speaker interacts with on a regular basis? Is it family, neighborhood friends, people from other social classes, or people outside the region?
B. Social Networks or individual patterns of communication are influenced by density (high or low) and multiplexity (multi-plex vs. uni-plex)
4. Group Reference--
A. Many people want to be considered as part of a particular social group, and part of this identity is symbolized by talking like other members of the group. The strength of this association may range from intense loyalty and pride to a resigned membership in a cultural group without choice.
B. The levels of language may range from the relatively superficial adoption of certain words to the maintenance of subtle pronunciation and grammatical patterns.
C. In American English, the symbolic significance of an ethnic or regional variety may put a speaker in a bind between the primary social status associations of an external reference group and an indigenous group identity. Some speakers of American English dialects are amazingly adroit at balancing dialects of English symbolically to life in more than one social world--a world of meaningful group identity and a world of external or institutional mainstream status; others are not.
5. Personal Identity or Character Attributes =
This is different in subtle ways from # 4 above. Some dialects carry with them personal or moral connotations related to character attributes that may range from intellectual competence to moral resolution.
Examples: A vernacular dialect may be associated with the underclass at the same time as it carries connotations of strength and openness;
The standard variety may be socially prestigious at the same time as it carries connotations of duplicity and pretentiousness.
Politicians and others who are gifted with language are
very adept at using language to assert personal attributes.