In contrast to regional dialects, our society often perceives social and ethnic dialects negatively. While we may have a positive sense of nostalgia about quaint folk expressions or words from regional speech, our society often makes more severe judgments about other people if the speech differences are viewed as social or ethnic. These may include judgments about:
 

• Their innate intelligence
• Their morality
• Their potential for employment or capacity for productive work

SOCIAL DIALECTOLOGY is a relatively new area of linguistic study that emerges in the 1960s at a time that our society was becoming increasingly aware of cultural and ethnic differences.  Instead of simply being interested in the preservation of different dialects or their historical development, it expands the study of language differences and begins to focus on how the study of language can perhaps contribute to resolving certain social problems.

I. DEFINING SOCIAL CLASS-- We are all aware of social differences, but identifying the specific characteristics that correlate with social status is often problematic. Americans, in particular, have a difficult time defining social class. Consider for a moment, what specific traits make one a member of the lower, middle or upper class in America?
 

• Money (range of annual salary)
• Status or Commodity Items such as particular cars, houses, clothes, etc
• Education
• Occupation
• How you speak
• Family background

Whatever the combination of features is, most sociologists agree that social class distinctions seem to be based on two elements:
 
 
 

• STATUS-- The amount of respect and deference accorded a person
• POWER-- The social and material resources a person can command, as well as the ability to make decisions and influence events.

In considering these elements, however, we need to include an additional element.  The real discriminators of social class are the members of the particular community who comprise the various social strata who may see social class quite differently than more objective outsiders will. Communities (which can often be viewed as a whole to belong to ONE particular social class) may have designations particular subgroups in terms of the social status hierarchy, and these can be used to determine class distinctions. As a result, the broader categories that determine social class from a national perspective (above) may be defined quite differently.

Can you think of any examples of this?

Finally, in defining social class we need to be aware of how our model typically emphasizes aspects of SOCIAL PRESTIGE and BEHAVIORIAL NORMS; however, other cultures do not necessarily define social class the same way. Consider the differences between these two models:
 

• CONSENSUS Model-- Individual competition is emphasized over conflicts between social classes. All social classes share certain expectations for appropriate and desirable behavior, and they view increases in social status as positive and desirable. From this perspective, the linguistic standard is always going to be something that is desirable to attain and any vernacular will be regarded (by ALL classes) as negative, even among those who use it.

• CONFLICT Model -- Class differences are viewed as the consequences of divisions and conflicts between the classes, and, in turn, linguistic (and other) differences are seen as a reflection of the interests of different classes and the conflicts between the classes. From this perspective, the standard-vernacular dichotomy may be viewed as a SYMBOLIC expression of class struggle. The vernacular becomes a speech form that represents the symbolic expression of separation from the middle and/or upper classes with which they stand in conflict.

II. Beyond Social Class: Other Socio-Linguistic Variables

In addition to such factors as region, age, education and gender, the following also influence the development of social or ethnic dialects:

1. The Linguistic Marketplace--
2. Social Networks--
3. Location-- potential differences between urban and rural
4. Where linguistic change occurs (at what class level)

III. The Social Evaluation of Linguistic Features: How we evaluate or perceive linguistic differences.

Our evaluation of linguistic forms related to social class are always ARBITRARY and exist on a CONTINUUM.

• Socially Prestigious -- Variants that are positively valued and that are usually associated with socially favored or dominant classes or groups. Usually related to the authorized or prescribed standard.

• Socially Stigmatized -- Variants that carry negative connotations through their association with low-status groups. In America the vast majority of socially diagnostic structures exist closer on the continuum to axis of stigmatization rather than the axis of prestige.

These variants include lexical, phonological, and grammatical elements. See page 158-59 for examples.

• Overt Prestige-- Linguistic forms that are assigned their social evaluation on the basis of the widespread recognition of their social significance. They are acknowledged by a full-range of social classes on a community-wide basis.

• Covert Prestige-- Linguistic forms that are valued apart from, or even in opposition to, their social significance in wider society. Their positive social significance lies in their acceptance within the local culture of social relations.

The distinction between these two forms of prestige is important for understanding why all vernacular speakers do not rush to become standard dialect speakers. It is indeed possible for a socially stigmatized form in one setting to have covert prestige in another.

See examples on pages 159-160

III. Social Class and Language Change

How Change Occurs:

What Social Classes are most likely to start language change?

Changes from Above

Changes from Below