1.

• ANE (Neo-Sumerian).  Nanna Ziggurat, Ur. 2100-2050BC;

• Egypt: Stepped Pyramid complex of Djoser, Saqqara; Architect: Imhotep, 2630-2611BCE-

• Necropolis for royal families of Djoser, with sham palace complex for afterlife needs, including heb-sed court

• intermediate stage of pyramid buiding evolved from mastaba form.

• Typical of Egyptian provisions for royal burials, supplied with all possible needs for the afterlife.

• While the Egyptian pyramids were of permanent stone materials and created to accommodate the expectations of the afterlife, the ziggurats were of mud-brick construction -- much less durable, and were focused on the needs of this life.  

• The ziggurat was typical of the  ANE: located at center of community, for religious and civic purposes (record-keeping, etc.) = central to daily life.

• As to outward appearances: the ziggurat had recessed paneling in sloping (battered)  sides = light-catching visual effect, some painted white. Pyramids were also likely to be white-surfaced, as the outer sheath, now missing from most, was smooth light stone. 

• Decoration:  Ziggurats were also decorated with cone mosaics while pyramid rooms were often supplied with reliefs and paintings related to afterlife activities or beliefs.

• The ziggurat was essentially a man-made mountain –  a temple base, to place temple closer to the deities while the beb-ben  form of the pyramid was a sun symbol, a ramp for the pharaoh to make the afterlife journey to the heavens on symbolic sun's rays

• the pyramid is essentially a funerary form, having evolved from the mastaba/grave marker; Ziggurat is a man-made mountain -- temple mount/base

• Each has a ceremonial, staged approach to the structure.

• While there are superficial resemblances between the two types of architecture, their construction and purposes were quite different from one another.

2.

• Egyptian. (Predynastic or Old Kingdom) detail from the Palette of Narmer, c. 3000BCE. Slate/schist

• Mesopotamian/Ancient Near East (Akkadian) detail of the Victory Stele of Naram Sin. 2254 -2218BC

• Mesopotamian/Ancient Near East (Akkadian) Victory Stele of Naram Sin. 2254 -2218BC

• Egyptian work is evidence of public proclamation of king's power, used to establish his authority,  ceremonial version of utilitarian object; 25" H,  apparently created for display in a temple

• Each is inscribed, shows use of written language - hieroglyphic, cuneiform

• male figure depictions of important types in the cultures : Egyptian King/pharaoh. ANE king, both related to deities

• Stele used for public proclamation of authority, commemoration of important event

• Palette is typical of Egyptian works assoc. w. royalty; recognizable as such: use of conventions of representation; particular composite view (explain); Symbols for pharaoh: crowns, garb; Established Canon of proportion for royals -- its conservative use over centuries helped guard society and expressed its values; King is larger (hierarchical scale); Hieroglyphic cartouche/serekh

• Naram Sin typical of some royal figures, although conventions of representation vary; this one relatively naturalistic, in composite view (explain) horned headdress shows divine connections of king; whereas some others are more puppet-like; with twisted torso and in hierarchical scale; ANE where notions of kingship arose

• each has Low-relief carving,, relatively deeper on stele 

• Palette marks the historical event of unification of Upper/Lower Egypt under Narmer/Menes, deities included; i.e. Horus, Hathor; Arrangement in registers (horizontal bands) of uneven size on the 2 sides.  This palette shows interactive influence with the ANE through intertwined feline necks which surround the cosmetic-mixing well (for kohl).  Some of the ANE cylinder seals have a similar feline motif 

• Mesopotamian conventions of representation vary -- here somewhat naturalistic

• both show ascent of king to power through military prowess

• Stele of Naram Sin  uses landscape setting rather than registers, perhaps first landscape

• ANE deities overhead -- astral forms, indicate approval of the gods, deities on the Palette of Narmer as well

• "construction", "building"  not appropriate terms for describing process of creating subtractive sculpture

3.

• Egypt, The Great Sphinx, Gizeh, 2520-2494BCE;  

• ANE/ Assyrian. Lamassu, similar to those fr. Palace of Sargon II, Khorsabad. 720 BCE. (these from the Palace of Ashurnasirpal II, Nimrud)

• Each is a type of hybrid guardian figure that includes a portrait of the king in combination with an animal form body. Each typical of its culture and is assertion of  power of kingship. Each is subtractive sculpture, carved out of larger block of material

• ANE presentation of king Sargon II/Ashurnasirpal II as fearsome, intimidating, powerful; Rel. to deity in elaborate horned headdress; Limestone, 14’H; Careful carving with lots of detail and great attention to surface, which is typical of ANE sculpture: curled hair, wings, veins, etc. Measure of naturalism in animal forms and portraiture, but imaginative; 2 viewpoints: frontal, side (5 legs).  Attnetion to surface detail also typical of ANE

• Colossal Sphinx is much larger (65'HX240'L) --a monolith carved at site from living rock, wears the headdress with lappets & C of standard pharaoh headgear;  Identification of specific king: perhaps Khafre, (disputed).  Enormous size, set out in the precincts of the Great Pyramid complex in Gizeh.

• In each culture, other hybrids included other combinations of animals, humans in various configurations

• -- here the Egyptian work is Lion body and Pharaoh head, the ANE work is also a lion hybrid, but others are winged bulls with king portrait heads  Similar guardian figures in other Egyptian places, sometimes in pairs or greater numbers, sometimes lining entry avenues, and sometimes as hybrids of different animals, especially rams.  Carved of sandstone, heavily eroded from blowing sand over the centuries, so it appears to have less detail than Lamassu  -- may not have originally been the case.

• Lamassu pairs seen throughout the palaces where they assert the power of king, remind visitors of his might.  Other lamassu are winged lions, and used in many palaces, other sites, with different details of form, decoration; this and some others  have cuneiform inscriptions. Would originally been brightly and colorfully painted.

• "construction", "building"  not appropriate terms for describing process of creating subtractive sculpture

4. 

• Achaemenid Persian. Reconstruction of Hall of 100 Columns, Palace of Darius and Xerxes at Persepolis, Iran.  500 BC

• Egyptian. Model of Hypostyle Hall from Karnak, Amon-Ra Temple. 1290-1224BC. 

• Each is a depiction of a hypostyle hall -- a large hall to accommodate crowds; each is of stone construction, change from mud-brick in late Ancient Near Eastern although standard in Egypt

• At Persepolis there were addorsed bulls/lions capitals on columns, span space, distribute weight of roof; relief carvings depict subject people from all parts of huge empire willingly bringing tribute, distinguished by garb, headwear

• Egyptians also used hypostyle form for large halls and post and lintel construction, but their capitals were generally either lotus blossoms or papyrus buds. 

• ANE columns had fluted shafts, Egyptian column shafts were covered with relief carved & painted imagery and hieroglyphics.

• The hypostyle form (Forest of columns) was a  means of construction of large halls to accommodate crowds, easily expandable

• Clerestory: raised center section which allowed for light through upper wall sections there, was an Egyptian innovation that improved usefulness of this type of hall because innermost areas tended to be dark.

5.

• Sumerian Lyre, fr. Tomb 789 (King’s or of Queen Puabi); 26CBC

• Post-Amarna Egyptian, NK. Anubis, the Jackal god, from the tomb of Tutankhamen, c. 1325 BC.

• Both are examples of the sorts of lavish grave goods that were supplied for royal burial in each of these cultures.

• Lyre is typical of some ANE art in use of conventions of representation with simplified, composite view of figure (explain) and use of fantastic animals for depiction of stories and rituals. Mother-of-pearl/shell inlaid into wooden panel, stylized bull head of gold and lapis lazuli. sound box panel arranged in registers. Frequently-seen motifs include master-of animals, scorpion-man from Epic of Gilgamesh, animals bringing sacrifice in procession, and playing type of instrument on which panel appeared. ( Bearded bull often seen in ANE, as well)

• Each shows afterlife beliefs about need for grave goods reflecting the deceased interests while they were alive – a musical instrument for wealthy aristocratic person or a formal representation of an important deity related to the Egyptian death cult.

• The Egyptian Anubis, the jackal-headed god was in charge of the weighing of the heart ceremony -- an important rite of passage into the afterlife, and he shows up in may of the depictions of afterlife ceremonies, along with Osiris, the god of the underworld. 

• The lean and elegant sculptural form of Anubis  was part of the remarkable find of treasures in the tomb of Tutankhamen that was discovered in the 1920s -- one of the only more-or-less intact examples of a lavish royal Egyptian burial.

• The lyre was one of several and part of a group of lavish goods in the royal ANE tomb

6.   

7. 

• Sasanian silver plate with image of Shapur II Hunting Rams 5th-6th CCE

• Post-Amarna Egyptian Golden belt buckle from Tomb of Tutankhamun 1325BC

• Each an example of really refined metalwork, created with great technique and skilled craftsmanship for imperial rulers, who are depicted in the work

• plate is silver with touches of mercury gilding and niello

• buckle is gold filigree

• Sasanians, successors to the Achaemenid Persians, who resurrected the Persian imperial glory centuries after defeat by Alexander the Great by conquering the Romans in their territory, used such lavish works as expressions of luxurious court life and as royal gifts

• the Belt Buckle is another item in the royal treasure horde in Tutankhamun's grave and was provided for his afterlife needs

• Ruler image on plate is of Shapur II, identifiable by the distinctive crown, which varied from one king to another.  The royal hunt theme, with the king in lively pursuit of rams, is a recurrent theme; motifs of fluttering scarves, braided horse tail, boldly patterned quiver, lavish horse trappings are frequently seen in Sasanian art  

• Ruler image of Tutankhamun also shows ruler and horse -- here with chariot, perhaps also at royal hunt, or perhaps in battle; image somewhat related to that of the king on the painted chest in the same tomb; his image related to the Amarna style figures of Akenaten and family; king in hierarchical scale; overall image full of symbolism seen elsewhere in  Egyptian art

 ↓GROUP B ↓

8.

• Mesolithic Rock Painting:  Herding and Feeding.  Tassili, Algeria  6,000-4,000BCE

• Paleolithic cave painting Altamira Spain: Bison.  12,000-11,000BC. 

• Each shows groups of animals, depicted on rock surfaces and applied with crude implements like sticks or hair brushes, using earth pigments. 

• Paleolithic painting at Altamira includes scattered images of bulls that were applied at various different times and with little or no regard for having the images relate to one another

• Mesolithic paintings at Tassili reflect the changes in lifestyle during that era by showings groups of animals that were corralled into herds and tended by groups of people who had begun the sort of village life that was focused around helping one another to tend to the animals and perform other activities related to communal living.  It includes a feeding trough and different species of animals, along with men and women who are taking care of them. 

• Differences between the two paintings show the differences in lifestyle in the 3 phases of the prehistoric era.

9.

• Paleolioithic Mammoth Bone House reconstruction, the Ukraine. 16th-10th CBC

• Mesolithic Hut reconstructions in village, Ulster, 7000-6000BCE

• examples of early attempts to create shelter from available materials by prehistoric man

• imaginative Ukrainian use of large animal bones carefully placed for framework, then covered with skins, sod, other available material to provide some protection from elements

• equally imaginative use at Ulster of less sturdy materials -- branches and other wooden poles, also covered with hides or sod

• the Mesolithic work appeared in conjunction with other such structures, as well as other evidence if Mesolithic changes -- pottery, more complex tools, other signs of settling down and cultivating crops and herding

10.

• Prehistoric/Neolithic. House at Skara Brae, Orkney Islands, Scotland, 3100 BC

•  Village at Çatal Hüyük, Turkey. Ancient Near East.  6500-5500 BC.

• Each is typical of late prehistoric period - Neolithic with village settlements and permanent housing. 

• At Skara Brae, they used post-and-lintel technique – basic architectural form, for various furniture forms, along with stacked stone walls.  Stone structure, made more comfortable with furs, grasses.  Well-organized, plan for  needs: storage, food prep, waste, sleeping. Centered around hearth.  one unit was apparently for common use by villagers

• Also typical Neolithic was the other village: early Ancient Near Eastern, village life, apparent cooperation of groups; Entry through roofs, with ladders – perhaps a defensive measure; Mud-brick construction wit timber frames, perhaps whitewashed.  Large proportion of shrine rooms, evident worship of bull; Decoration with bulls, hunt scene, volcano scene; Bakery facility common for the group; Passages through window–like openings in walls. platforms in each room apparently used for seating and beds

• while unitary groups at Skara Brae apparently lived together in single rooms, at Çatal Hüyük, units were comprised of several rooms each

• each also had evidence of other artifacts, pottery and crafts -- at Skara Brae, an incised-decoration pottery was found; at Çatal Hüyük, there were many more forms of art and tools, as well as embellishment of interior spaces with pained and plastered forms

• while there was proof of farming and herding at both villages, and of obsidian trade at Çatal Hüyük, it seems more likely that the people of Skara Brae would have also been engaged in hunting

• differences in climate should be considered in the construction and arrangement of each village -- the harsher northern seaside climate at Skara Brae would not have allowed the simpler arrangement and openness seen in Çatal Hüyük,

• Each shows accommodation for family and communal living in the Neolithic era, as people settled down.

11.

• Prehistoric (Paleolithic). Head and antlers of a deer, cave painting from Lascaux Caves in France. 15-13MBC.

• Prehistoric (Paleolithic). Chauvet Cave, France: painting: Rhinoceros  30-13MBC.   

• Each is typical of prehistoric art  in simple depiction, on available surfaces, with available earth materials. Some are simple renditions of form with relative accuracy and some sense of naturalism for animals, but not so much for human forms, which were rare in the cave drawings or paintings. 

• The deer is somewhat less sophisticated in rendition and shows how artists sometimes overemphasize or exaggerate features of an animal that are striking to them, like the treatment of the antlers here, even though it is based in close observation of the natural forms. 

• The horn of the Rhinoceros is also somewhat more exaggerated, but done in an elegant way that seems to indicate, as do many of the drawings and paintings at Chauvet, that there was a longer tradition of practiced and skilled artwork in some of the caves than had previously been described, when this cave was found in the 1990s.  Its discovery led scholars to revise their opinion in this regard.

• The drawings and paintings in most sites seem to be reflecting activities of era; Probably "sympathetic magic" for hopes of success in hunt, some have arrows and arrow marks. Also shows attempts by artists to create imagery in response to their visual world, and to show interest in aesthetic issues. Simple renditions of form with relative accuracy and some sense of naturalism.  In many sites, there is evidence of repeated return to the same spot, perhaps a sacred ritual site, as art has been obviously created by various artists at different times.

12.

• Prehistoric (Paleolithic) Human with Feline Head. c. 30,000-28,000BCE, Mammoth Ivory 11 5/8" H.

• Prehistoric (Paleolithic)."Venus" of Willendorf.  28-25MBC. 4.25"H.

• the feline-headed human is a very early sculptural form, showing imaginative combination of 2 species

• each is subtractive sculptural form, carved from natural materials

• each shows a keen observation of naturalism in form, but with an imaginative interpretation that emphasizes certain features more than others for artistic purposes

• the Limestone female seems to perhaps have been a fetish figure, a talisman or charm for fertility of humans, animals, plants -- all of which would have been of great concern to early people. From the time when people were still nomadic, the sites of creation for these is unknown, as they could have been carried far from those spots

• while the "Venus" has emphatic female characteristics, the other is not clear in gender in its damaged state; some scholars have identified it as male, others as female

• Both are of relatively small, portable size, although the female is less than half the size of the other

• actual purposes are uncertain, but scholarly conjecture has been offered for each. 

• The Venus Figure has emphasis on female reproductive parts, de-emphasis on other features and rudimentary arms, with no facial features and cap-like hair. While the sense of proportion is exaggerated, and the shape is likely distorted in some parts, there is ample evidence of a keen examination of naturalistic features of certain parts of the anatomy. There is a preponderance of female figures in prehistoric carving. This one found in Austria, although it is not known where it was made, and there are many from other locations, as well, with similar emphasis, in various materials.

• The fleshiness may indicate a value in being well-fed.

• While the feline-headed figure was somewhat large for the era, it is relatively small, under 1 foot high

• The feline headed figure was found in Germany, and the composite form may show an imagined type or the use of costume or mask for play or ritual purposes. Later images of such hybrid forms lead scholars to suggest these may have been early examples of  sorcerers or shamans.

• For neither is there any written record to substantiate interpretation, but the female "Venus" figure apparently used as good luck fertility fetish figure for humans, animals, crops. "Venus" designation borrowed from Greek art probably inappropriate name, not really a deity/goddess. 

• For each figure, a good measure of care was taken to create the carved form, so they had some importance to their makers and/or users.

• while the text notes the difficulties that would have been involved in procuring and then carving the ivory, there is no evidence that the artist was involved in all stages of the process -- he might have found the material

• "construction", "building"  not appropriate terms for describing process of creating subtractive sculpture

13.

14.

• Prehistoric/Neolithic.  Stonehenge Salisbury Plain, England  2550-1600 BCE.

• Prehistoric/Neolithic.  Mnajdra, Gigantija Temple. Malta 3600-2500BCE

• each is typical of Neolithic era in showing evidence of communal living and ritual, and cooperative efforts and development of architectural forms and methods. 

• For Stonehenge, the use of megaliths to create post-and-lintel structure (with lintel-and-tenon method).  Purpose unknown, but clearly demonstrates some knowledge of astronomical events and passing of seasons.  Stones partly from distant sites.  That, and apparent attention to development of site over many centuries show its importance to people overtime and apparent use as ritual site associated with religion and burial.

• For the Malta Temples, there are a great number of similar stone architectural structures, apparently temple complexes, with numerous rooms, often in a multi-lobed configuration, and many of the chambers had altars.   There were living quarters nearby, as well

• construction at Malta is combination of stacked stone and post-and-lintel, again, some of it notched, to prevent slippage, like Stonehenge lintel and tenon

• many different sizes of stone at Malta, with larger ones brought to the site by rolling, then levered into position

• Stonehenge one of many "henge" or chromlech formations, combined the stone components with wooden henges and ditched circles.  Part of site, at least, related to burial, as were other similar places

• Other related sites were not all circular formations

• at Malta, some interiors were painted, while others had carving as part of the decor, as well as pottery and sculpture and some enormous statues

• configurations at Malta also showed relationships to astronomical events like the solstices

• Early evidence of monumental stone architecture.  Both works show cooperation among  Neolithic settling people to provide for communal needs.